Papers Presented at Conferences (when not listed elsewhere)
Hover over the article title link for abstract, click for
downloadable paper in pdf.
2009
- Levinson, David and Feng Xie (2007) Does
First Last? The existence and extent of first mover advantages on spatial
networks. This paper examines the nature of first mover advantages
on spatially- differentiated surface transportation networks. The literature
on first mover advantages identifies a number of sources that explain
their existence. However whether those sources exist on spatial networks,
and how they play out with true capital immobility have been unanswered
questions. By examining empirical examples including commuter rail
and the Underground in London and roads in the Twin Cities of Min-
neapolis and St. Paul, first mover advantages were observed in rail
stations but not in the road network. A simulation model was then constructed
to replicate the growth of surface transportation networks incorporating
idealized deployment decisions and to test whether the first network
elements (links, nodes) remain strongest (or even strong) into the
future. Simulation experiments were conducted and Spearman rank correlation
tests revealed that first mover advantages exist in both nodes and
links and become increasingly prominent as the network evolves due
to the accumulated advantage of earlier established network elements.
Simulation results also disclosed that network growth with a higher
concentration of initial land uses results in stronger first mover
advantages, and that the extent may vary as the topological attributes
of the network change over time. The sensitivity of simulation results
on model parameters are also discussed.
Keywords: first mover advantage, transport, land
use, London Underground, London railways, network growth, induced demand,
induced supply Presented at 88th Transportation Research Board
Conference, January 2009, Washington , DC.
- Parthasarathi, Pavithra and David Levinson (2008) Post-Construction
Evaluation of Traffic Forecast Accuracy. This research evaluates
the accuracy of demand forecasts using a sample of recently-completed
projects in Minnesota and identifies the factors influencing the inaccuracy
in forecasts. The fore- cast traffic data for this study is drawn from
Environmental Impact Statements(EIS), Transporta- tion Analysis Reports
(TAR) and other forecast reports produced by the Minnesota Department
of Transportation (Mn/DOT) with a horizon forecast year of 2010 or
earlier. The actual traffic data is compiled from the database of traffic
counts maintained by the Office of Traffic Forecasting and Analysis section
at Mn/DOT. Based on recent research on forecast accuracy, the (in)accuracy
of traffic forecasts is estimated as a ratio of the forecast traffic
to the actual traffic. The estimation of forecast (in)accuracy also
involves a comparison of the socioeconomic and demographic assumptions,
the assumed networks to the actual in-place networks and other travel
behavior assumptions that went into generating the traffic forecasts
against actual conditions. The analysis indicates a general trend of
underestimation in roadway traffic forecasts with fac- tors such as
highway type, functional classification, direction playing an influencing
role. Road- ways with higher volumes and higher functional classifications
such as freeways are subject to underestimation compared to lower volume
roadways/functional classifications. The comparison of demographic forecasts
shows a trend of overestimation while the comparison of travel behavior
characteristics indicates a lack of incorporation of fundamental shifts
and societal changes.
Keywords: Traffic Forecast, Travel Demand Model,
Transportation Planning Presented at 88th Transportation Research
Board Conference, January 2009, Washington , DC. [bib]
[presentation]
- Parthasarathi, Pavithra, Anupam Srivastava, Nikolas Geroliminis, and
David Levinson (2009) The
Importance of Being Early. The assumption that the penalty for
being early is less than that for being late was put forward by Vickrey
who analyzed how commuters compare penalties in the form of schedule
delay (due to peak hour congestion), against penalties in the form of
reaching their destination (ahead or behind their desired time of arrival).
This assumption has been tested by many researchers since then for various
applications, especially in modeling congestion pricing where it is critical
to understand the tradeoff between schedule delay and travel delay. Key
findings are summarized in the second section of this paper. This research
aims to test this hypothesis of earliness being less expensive than lateness
using empirical data at different levels and across different regions.
New methods to estimate the ratio of earliness to lateness for different
types of datasets are developed, which could be used by agencies to implement
control policies like congestion pricing or other schemes more accurately.
Travel survey data from metropolitan areas provide individual travel
patterns while loop detector data provide link level traffic flow data.
Keywords: Schedule Delay, Value of Time, Travel
Behavior, Transportation Planning Presented at International
Transport Economics Conference, June 2009, Minneapolis. Presented at
International Association of Travel Behavior Research, December 2009,
India.
- Zhu, Shanjiang, David Levinson, Henry Liu, and Kathleen Harder (2008) The
Traffic and Behavioral Effects of the I-35W Mississippi River Bridge collapse. The
collapse, on August 1, 2007, of the I-35W bridge over the Mississippi
River in Minneapolis, abruptly interrupted the usual route of about
140,000 daily vehicle trips and substantially disturbed the flow pattern
on the network. It took several weeks for the network to re-equilibrate,
during which period, travelers continued to learn and adjust their
travel decisions. A good understanding of this process is crucial for
traffic management and designing mitigation schemes. A survey collected
behavioral responses to the bridge collapse. Traffic data were also collected
to understand the traffic conditions experienced by road users. Data
from both resources are analyzed and compared. Findings of behavioral
effects of capacity changes could have significant implications for travel
demand modeling, especially of day-to-day travel demand.
Keywords: I-35W bridge collapse, travel behavior,
travel survey Presented at 88th Transportation Research Board
Conference, January 2009, Washington , DC. [bib]
[poster]
2008
- Liao, Chen-Fu and David Levinson (2006) Web-Based
Roadway Geometry Design Software for Transportation Education. Traditionally,
students use pencil and ruler to lay out lines and curves over contour
maps for roadway geometry design. Numerous calculations of stopping
sight distance, minimum turning radius, and curve alignments are required
during the roadway design process in order to ensure safety, to minimize
economic and environmental impacts, as well as to reduce construction
costs. Iterative computations during the design process are usually
performed manually by the students in order to meet any given design
criteria and environmental constraints. The traditional design process
of roadway geometry design is often cumbersome and time consuming.
It limits students from taking a broader perspective on the overall
roadway design process. An Internet-based roadway design tool (ROAD:
Roadway Online Application for Design) was developed to enhance the
learning experience for transportation engineering students. This tool
allows students to efficiently design and to easily modify the roadway
design with given economic and environmental parameters. A 3D roadway
geometry model can be generated by the software at final design to
allow students immerse themselves in the driver’s seat and drive
through the designed roadway at maximum design speed. This roadway
geometry design tool was deployed and tested in a civil engineering
undergraduate class in spring 2006 at University of Minnesota, Department
of Civil Engineering. Feedback was collected from instructors and students
that will lead to additional enhancements of the roadway design software.
Keywords: Roadway Geometry Design, Distance Learning,
Transportation Visualization Presented at 87th Transportation
Research Board Conference, January 2008, Washington , DC. #08-0042
- Zhu, Shanjiang, David Levinson, and Lei Zhang (2007) An
Agent-based Route Choice Model. Travel demand emerges from individual
decisions. These decisions, depending on individual objectives, preferences,
experiences and spatial knowledge about travel, are both heterogeneous
and evolutionary. Research emerging from fields such as road pricing
and ATIS requires travel demand models that are able to consider travelers
with distinct attributes (value of time (VOT), willingness to pay,
travel budgets, etc.) and behavioral preferences (e.g. willingness
to switch routes with potential savings) in a differentiated market
(by tolls and the level of service). Traditional trip-based models
have difficulty in dealing with the aforementioned heterogeneity and
issues such as equity. Moreover, the role of spatial information, which
has significant influence on decision-making and travel behavior, has
not been fully addressed in existing models. To bridge the gap, this
paper proposes to explicitly model the formation and spreading of spatial
knowledge among travelers. An Agent-based Route Choice (ARC) model
was developed to track choices of each individual decision-maker in
a road network over time and map individual choices into macroscopic
flow pattern. ARC has been applied on both Sioux Falls network and
Chicago sketch network. Comparison between ARC and existing models
(UE and SUE) on both networks shows ARC is valid and computationally
tractable. To be brief, this paper specifically focuses on the route
choice behavior, while the proposed model can be extended to other
modules of travel demand under an integrated framework. .
Presented at 87th Transportation Research Board Conference, January
2008, Washington , DC. #08-2152 [poster]
2007
- Tilahun, Nebiyou and David Levinson (2007) Work
and Home Location: Possible Role of Social Networks. This research
explores to what extent people’s work locations are similar to that
of those who live around them. Using the Longitudinal Economic and
Household Dynamics data set and the US census for the Twin Cities (Minneapolis-St.
Paul) metropolitan area, we investigate the home and work locations
of different census block residents. Our aim is to investigate if people
who live close to one another, also work close to one another to a
degree beyond what would be expected at random. We find a significantly
non-random correlation between joint home and joint work locations.
Further, we show what features of particular neighborhoods are associated
with comparatively higher incidences of people sharing work locations.
One reason for such an outcome can be the role neighborhood level social
networks play in locating jobs; or conversely work place social networks
play in choosing the home location or both. Such findings should be
used to refine work trip distribution models that otherwise depend mainly
on impedance between the origin and destination. Presented
at Frontiers in Transportation: Social Interactions: 14-16 October
2007 and Transportation Research Board Conference, January 2008.
- Wasfi, Rania A., David Levinson and Ahmed M. El-Geneidy, (2007) The
Transportation Needs of Seniors. Over 208,000 residents of Hennepin
County, Minnesota are over the age of 55, a number that is sure to
rise. This paper examines the transportation needs of the elderly in
Hennepin County through a mail out-mail back survey of their existing
travel behavior and their unmet needs. The survey had both demographic
and attitude questions as well as a travel diary for recording actual
trips and desired but untaken trips. We found that 87% of the sampled
population feel they are independent travelers. Around 51 percent of
the surveyed population indicated that they are transit users, 25 percent
of them revealed their concerns about difficulties they are facing
when using public transit. About 16 percent of transit users were concerned
about waiting time for transit, while only 8% were concerned about
the travel time. Only 15 percent of the surveyed population use paratransit.
A large number of comments were received, which add qualitative flavor
to the analysis that was conducted. Seniors recognize even if they
are currently independent, that will not always be the case, and acknowledge
they should plan.
Keywords: Transportation needs, Elderly, Seniors,
Disadvantaged Populations Presented at the 2007 World Conference
on Transportation Research.
- Wasfi, Rania A., David Levinson and Ahmed M. El-Geneidy, (2007) Measuring
the transportation needs of people with developmental disability. The
US Department of Health and Human Services Administration on Development
Disabilities estimates the number of people diagnosed with a developmental
disability in the United States as 4.5 million persons, which would
translate to about 17,000 residents of Hennepin County, Minnesota.
This research paper examines the transportation needs of adults with
developmental disabilities either residing or working in Hennepin County
through a survey of their existing travel behavior and their unmet
transportation needs. The survey had both demographic and attitude
questions as well as a travel diary to record both actual and desired
but untaken trips. In this paper we report and discuss the main findings
of the survey. It was clear from observing the returned sample that
almost the entire surveyed population does not live independently.
More than half of the surveyed population worked every day, while recreation
occurred at least once a week for about two-thirds of the population,
and more than half undertook social trips weekly. About 30% reported
being unable to make trips they want to make and 46% unable to make
trips they need to make. Public transit poses difficulties for this
population both physically and intellectually. There were also specific
complaints about the lack of transit service in addition to concerns
regarding paratransit services. Community service providers received
praise.
Keywords: Developmental disability, disadvantaged
population, disability, transportation needs presented at
the 2007 Transportation Research Board Conference.
- Zhu, Shanjiang, Feng Xie and David Levinson (2006) Enhancing
Transportation Education through On-line Simulation using an Agent-Based
Demand and Assignment Model. This research explores the effectiveness
of using simulation as a tool for enhancing classroom learning in the
Civil Engineering Department of the University of Minnesota at Twin
Cities. The authors developed a modern transportation planning software
package, Agent-based Demand and Assignment Model (ADAM), that is consistent
with our present understanding of travel behavior, that is platform
independent, and that is easy to learn and is thus usable by students.
An in-class project incorporated ADAM and the performance of this education
strategy was evaluated through pre-class survey, post-class survey,
scores in the quiz focusing on travel demand modeling and final scores.
Results showed that ADAM effectively enhanced students' self-reported
understanding of transportation planning and their skills of forming
opinions, evaluating projects and making judgments. Students of some
learning styles were found to benefit more than others through simulation-based
teaching strategy. Findings in this research could have significant
implications for future practice of simulation-based teaching strategy.
Keywords: Agent-based Model, Transportation Education,
Simulation presented at the 2007 Transportation Research Board
Conference.
2006
- Tilahun, Nebiyou, and David Levinson (2006) Selfishness
and Altruism in the Distribution of Travel Time and Income. Most
economic models assume that individuals act out their preferences based
on their own self interest. However there have also been other paradigms
in the economics literature that have tried to capture alternative
manifestations of human behavior that include fairness. This study
examines people's preferences when it comes to their travel time and
their income and what type of trade offs they are willing to make to
live in a society where the distributions of travel time and income
are fairer. Using a stated preference experiment we find that when
it comes to travel time, individuals are more concerned with societal
average travel time, followed by their own travel time and finally
by large inequalities in the society, while in the case of income they
are more concerned with their own income, followed by societal average
and finally by inequality.
Keywords: Fairness, Inequality, Travel Time,
Income, Altruism, Stated Preference, Veil of ignorance, Equity, Time
equity, Income Equity, Time distribution, Income Distribution. presented
at the 11th International Association of Travel Behaviour Research Conference
in Kyoto, Japan August 16-20, 2006 [presentation]
2005
- Li, Ning, David M. Levinson, Brian Smalkoski, and Michael Corbett (2005) Benefit-Cost
Analysis of Spring Weight Restrictions in Lyon County, Minnesota. Spring
Weight Restrictions (SWR) forbid heavy trucks to run on some low- level
roads during the spring thaw period. There has been long dispute between
trucking industry and road agencies on the effectiveness of this policy.
Previous studies showed inconsistent results on this issue. This paper
consistently estimates the benefits and costs of the SWR policy in
Lyon County, Minnesota. A freight demand model was built to simulate
truck flow on the road network. A pavement performance model estimates
pavement life in terms of rutting failure based on the traffic provided
by freight demand model. The analysis shows that the benefits of SWR
to local agencies are exceeded by the costs to truckers, which suggests
lifting these seasonal restrictions on 7 and 9-ton roads.
Keywords: Spring Weight Restrictions, Spring
Load Restrictions, Benefit/Cost Analysis, EMME/2, Freight Demand Model,
Pavement Performance Model, Freight Economics, Truck Weight Restrictions (05-1495)
presented at 84th Annual Meeting of Transportation Research Board in
Washington, DC, January 9-13th 2005.
- Mogush, Paul, Kevin J. Krizek, David M. Levinson (2005) Value
of Trail Access on Home Purchases. We use hedonic analysis of
home sales data from the Twin Cities Metropolitan Area to estimate
the effects of access of different types of trails on home value. Our
model includes proximity to three distinct types bicycle facilities,
controlling for local fixed effects and open space characteristics.
Using interaction terms detect different preferences between city and
suburban homebuyers. Regression results show that off-street bicycle
trails situated alongside busy streets are negatively associated with
home sale prices in both the city and suburbs. Proximity to off-street
bicycle trails away from trafficked streets in the city are positively
associated with home sale prices, with no significant result in the
suburbs. On-street bicycle lanes have no effect in the city and are
a disamenity in the suburbs. The following policy issues are relevant
from this research. First, type of trail matters. On-street trails
and road-side trails may not be as appreciated as many city planners
or policy officials think. Second, city residents have different preferences
than suburban residents. Third and as suspected, larger and more pressing
factors likely influencing residential location decisions. The finding
also suggest that urban planners and advocates need to be aware of
the consequences of providing for bicycle facilities, as the change
in welfare is not necessarily positive for all homeowners. (05-0975)
presented at 84th Annual Meeting of Transportation Research Board in
Washington, DC, January 9-13th 2005.
- Zhang, Lei, Feng Xie, David M. Levinson (2005) Variation
of Subjective Value of Travel Time on Freeways and Ramp Meters. This
paper explores drivers' subjective value of time under moving and stopped
freeway travel conditions using a stated preference survey. Unlike
previous studies that assume a constant value of time, this research
relates perceived satisfaction of a freeway trip to its quality indicators.
Sixty-nine subjects in the Twin Cities are asked in the survey to rank
sixteen driving scenarios in four condition sets with different durations
of ramp wait and freeway travel. Several utility functions are specified
where the weight of ramp delay is a function of the length of the delay
itself and subject specific variables, and the resulting choice models
estimated using rank-ordered logit and binary logit techniques. Results
suggest that drivers perceive ramp wait as more onerous than freeway
travel. Drivers also weight each minute of ramp wait more heavily as
the length of the delay gets longer. Although the subjects show some
tolerance to the first several minutes of ramp delay (less than 5 minutes),
they perceive long delays as much as twelve times more onerous than
time in motion. The derived weighting function for ramp wait can improve
the design of freeway traffic control strategies that trade-off freeway
delay with ramp wait. The findings also enable a more utility-based
approach for freeway operations than the current method which has the
engineering efficiency objective of minimizing total system delay or
maximizing throughput. Minimizing total perceived travel time is probably
more appropriate than minimizing total absolute travel time which does
not take into account driver acceptance. The weighting function can
also be easily transformed into a value of time function for project
evaluation purposes.
Keywords: Value of time, value of travel time,
Time perception, Driver acceptance, Freeway congestion, Ramp meter (05-0868)
presented at 84th Annual Meeting of Transportation Research Board in
Washington, DC, January 9-13th 2005.
- Zhang, Lei and David M. Levinson (2005) Pricing,
Investment, and Network Equilibrium. Despite rapidly emerging
innovative road pricing and investment principles, the development
of a long run network dynamics model for necessary policy evaluation
is still lagging. This research endeavors to fill this gap and models
the impacts of road financing policies throughout the network equilibration
process. The manner in which pricing and investment jointly shape network
equilibrium is particularly important and explored in this study. The
interactions among travel demand, road supply, revenue mechanism and
investment rules are modeled at the link level in a network growth
simulator. After assessing several measures of effectiveness, the proposed
network growth model is able to evaluate the short- and long-run impacts
of a broad spectrum of road pricing and investment policies on large-scale
road
networks, which can provide valuable information
to decision-makers such as the implications of various policy scenarios
on social welfare, financial situation of road authorities and potential
implementation problems. Some issues hard to address in theoretical analysis
can be examined in the agent-based simulation model. As a demonstration,
we apply the network growth model to assess marginal and average pricing
scenarios on a sample
network. Even this relatively simple application
provides new insights into issues around road pricing that have not previously
been seriously considered. For instance, the results disclose a potential
problem of over-investment when the marginal cost pricing scheme is adopted
in conjunction with a myopic profit-neutral investment policy.
Keywords: Transportation network equilibrium;
Road growth; Pricing; Congestion toll; Investment; Transport policy analysis. (05-0943)
presented at 84th Annual Meeting of Transportation Research Board in
Washington, DC, January 9-13th 2005.
2004
- Li, Ning, Xi Zou, and David Levinson (2004) Sharing
Data Between Arc/Info and Emme/2: Practice in Lyon County, Minnesota. Sharing
data between GIS software (Arc/Info) and Traffic Demand Modeling Software
(EMME/2) has long been an issue of interest to traffic engineers. A
literature review and evaluation of current efforts on the data exchange
is given in this paper. The authors also developed their own economical
method to realize the data transform through Matlab programming. As
an example, the road network of Lyon County, Minnesota is constructed
by the integrated use of Arc/Info, EMME/2, Enif, and the Matlab program.
The combined use of these programs achieved the expected objectives
through a practical and economical way. The method can be utilized
by other EMME/2 users who have a similar need.
Keywords: Data exchange, Emme/2, Arc/info, network
map presented at 45th Transportation
Research Forum Annual Meeting
- Muthuswamy, Satyanarayana, Gary A Davis, David M Levinson and Panos
G Michalopoulos (2004) Freeway
Origin Destination Matrices: Not as Simple as They Seem. Travel
demand can be elegantly represented using an Origin-Destination (OD)
matrix. The link counts observed on the network are produced by the underlying
travel demand. One could use these counts to reconstruct the OD matrix.
An offline approach to estimate a static OD matrix over the peak period
for freeway sections using these counts is proposed in this research.
Almost all the offline methods use linear models to approximate the relationship
between the on-ramp and off-ramp counts. Previous work indicates that
the use of a traffic flow model embedded in a search routine performs
better than these linear models. In this research that approach is enhanced
using a microscopic traffic simulator, AIMSUN, and a gradient based optimization
routine, MINOS, interfaced to estimate an OD matrix. This approach is
an application of the Prediction Error Minimization (PEM) method. The
problem is non-linear and non-smooth, and the optimization routine finds
multiple local minima, but cannot guarantee a global minima. However,
with a number of starting seed matrices, an OD matrix with a good fit
in terms of reproducing traffic counts can be estimated. The dominance
of the mainline counts in the OD estimation and an identifiability issue
is indicated from the experiments. The quality of the estimates improves
as the specification error, introduced due to the discrepancy between
the traffic flow model and the real world process that generates the
on-ramp and off-ramp counts, reduces.
Keywords: travel demand, OD estimation, simulation,
optimization presented at Transportation Research Board 83rd
Annual Meeting, January 10-14 2004, Washington DC [poster]
- Zhang, Lei and David Levinson (2004) A
Model of the Rise and Fall of Roads. Transportation network planning
decisions made at one point of time can have profound impacts in the
future. However, transportation networks are usually assumed tobe static
in models of land use. A better understanding of the natural growth
pattern of roads will provide valuable guidance to planners who try
to shape the future network. This paper analyzes the relationships
between network supply and travel demand, and describes a road development
and degeneration mechanism microscopically at the linklevel. A simulation
model of transportation network dynamics is developed, involving iterative
evolution of travel demand patterns, network revenue policies, cost
estimation,and investment rules. The model is applied to a real-world
congesting network-the Twin Cities transportation network which comprises
nearly 8,000 nodes and more than 20,000 links, using network data collected
since year 1978. Four experiments are carried out with different initial
conditions and constraints, the results from which allow us toexplore
model properties such as computational feasibility, qualitative implications,
potential calibration procedures, and predictive value. The hypothesis
that roadhierarchies are emergen properties of transportation networks
is confirmed, and the underlying reasons discovered. Spatial distribution
of capacity, traffic flow, andcongestion in the transportation network
is tracked over time. Potential improvements to the model in particular
and future research directions in transportation network dynamicsin
general are also discussed.
Keywords: Transportation network dynamics, Urban
planning, Road supply presented March 2004 at MIT Engineering
Systems Symposium
2003
- Levinson, D and Hong Huo (2003), Effectiveness
of VMS Using Empirical Loop Detector Data. The effectiveness
of Variable Messages Signs (VMS) on route guidance is assessed by a
discrete probit choice model that estimates the proportion of vehicles
that diverts to an alternative routes given the characteristics of
different messages. A before-and-after study is also conducted to quantitatively
evaluate the network wide reduction of travel time and total delay
of VMS systems. We find that VMS has no obvious effect on reduction
of travel time, but can reduce the total delay.
Keywords: Variable message signs (VMS), Route
Choice, Diversion Behavior, Cost Benefit Analysis presented
at Transportation Research Board Conference, January 12 –
16 2003 Washington DC (Session 565)
- Zou, Xi and David Levinson (2003), Detecting
the Breakdown of Traffic. Timely traffic prediction is important
in advanced traffic management systems to make possible rapid and effective
response by traffic control facilities. From the observations of traffic
flow, the time series present repetitive or regular behavior over time
that distinguishes time series analysis of traffic flow from classical
statistics, which assumes independence over time. By taking advantage
of tools in frequency domain analysis, this paper proposes a new criterion
function that can detect the onset of congestion. It is found that
the changing rate of the cross-correlation between density dynamics
and flow rate determines traffic transferring from free flow phase
to the congestion phase. A definition of traffic stability is proposed
based on the criterion function. The new method suggests that an unreturnable
transition will occur only if the changing rate of the cross-correlation
exceeds a threshold. Based on real traffic data, detection of congestion
is conducted in which the new scheme performs well compared to previous
studies. presented at Transportation Research Board Conference,
January 12 –– 16 2003 Washington DC (Session 732) (03-2153)
2002
- Levinson, David (2002) Road
Pricing and Compensation for Delay. The equity issues facing
congestion pricing are deep and a major impediment to its adoption.
A criticism that gets very little attention is that not only does a
toll road enable some to buy their way out of congestion, they often
do so at the expense of others - that is, they may make others wait
longer so that they can avoid delay. They, along with the toll road
authority, are in a sense stealing time from those who don't pay. What
to do with the revenue from congestion pricing is a critical question
that needs to be answered before toll roads will become widely adopted.
This paper investigates the issue of compensation and several possible
alternatives. The equity and efficiency problem of conventional (uncompensated)
congestion pricing is outlined. Then several of the previous alternatives
are discussed and developed. A new compensation mechanism is suggested,
called the "delayer pays" principle. This principle ensures that those
who are undelayed but delay others pay a toll to compensate those who
are delayed. Issues of imperfect information and gaming the system
are addressed. Such a system can potentially eliminate some of the
disadvantages of congestion pricing while ensuring that the money stays
within the transportation sector.
Key Words: Value Pricing, Road Pricing, Compensation,
Transportation Equity presented at Transportation Research
Board Conference, January 14-18 2002, Washington DC (02-2017) Published
in Levinson, David (2002) Financing
Transportation Networks. Edward Elgar Publishers, Northampton, Massachusetts
[presentation]
